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PAPER
EXTRAORDINARY
DREAMS: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY
Stanley
Krippner
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify extraordinary dreams in a
sample of 1,666 dream reports, and to make gender comparisons as well.
Research participants were members of dream seminars that the author
conducted between 1990 and 1998 in Argentina, Brazil, Japan, Russia,
Ukraine, and the United States. Only one dream report per participant was
utilized, 910 dream reports from women and 756 from men. Scoring criteria
were determined in advance for creative, lucid, healing, dreams within
dreams, out-of-body, telepathic, mutual, clairvoyant, precognitive,
past-life, initiation, and visitation dreams. In the sample of 1,666
dreams, there were 135 (8.1%) extraordinary dreams. Female dreamers
reported 77 extraordinary dreams, while male dreamers reported 58; the
difference was not statistically significant. Russia had the highest
percentage of extraordinary dream reports (12.7%), followed by Brazil
(10.9%), Argentina (9.0%), Japan (8.1%), Ukraine (5.9%), and the United
States (5.7%). When chi square statistics were applied, it was found that
Russian dreamers reported significantly more extraordinary dreams than
dreamers in Ukraine or the United States. It was concluded that cultural
factors support or suppress the incidence of extraordinary dreams, their
recall, and the willingness of dreamers to share them.
In the
English language, one of the definitions of the word “extraordinary”
is “beyond what is common or usual.” This term can be applied to those
dreams that are so rarely reported that they resemble “extraordinary”
specimens of plants, animals, or gemstones (Krippner & de Carvalho,
1998). Despite their unusual nature, dreamers often find extraordinary
dreams filled with meaning and direction.
Among these unusual, extraordinary
dreams are creative dreams that
assist dreamers’ attempts to solve problems or bring something new into
being. Also extraordinary are those dreams described as “lucid.” In lucid dreams, in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is
dreaming while the dream is going on; sometimes the dreamer can change the
direction of these dreams in ways that are entertaining and instructive.
Healing
dreams
can alert the dreamer to an oncoming health problem or can give
suggestions as to preventive or remedial action. Dreams
within dreams are extraordinary because the dreamer has a dream or
dream-like experience within the dream. Dreamers may dream about having a
dream, or about having a vision, drug experience, or other dream-like
episode. In out-of-body dreams,
dreamers have the sensation of leaving their body while the dream is going
on; sometimes this impression persists upon awakening and they have an
impression that they are floating near the ceiling of their room for a few
seconds.
In telepathic dreams it is the dreamer’s impression that a dream
correctly identified the thoughts of someone in waking life at the time of
the dream. Mutual dreams are
those in which the dreamer and someone else report having had similar
dreams on the same night. Clairvoyant
dreams concern distant events about which the dreamer has had no
ordinary way of obtaining information.
In precognitive
dreams, a dream is said to provide information about an event that has
not taken place at the time of the dream. A past-life
dream concerns past events in which the dreamer participated, but with
a different identity than characterizes his or her current life. Some of
these dreams are said to include events that the dreamer would not have
known about unless they had been there at the time.
Initiation dreams
introduce the dreamer to a new worldview, or a new mission in life.
Sometimes these dreams take place in the interior of an unidentified
flying object; sometimes they involve being admitted to membership in a
secret society; sometimes they are a “call” to a new vocational
path—such as one concerned with spiritual healing, protecting the earth,
or fighting for social betterment. In visitation
dreams, the dreamer is greeted by ancestors, spirits, or deities, and
is given messages or counsel by them.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate the incidence of a
selected number of extraordinary dreams from a large sample of dream
reports. What is extraordinary in one culture might not be especially
strange in another culture, and what is extraordinary for one gender may
be less extraordinary for the other gender. Studies of spontaneous
ostensible psi experiences indicate cross-cultural differences in the
incidence of such reports (e.g., Haraldsson & Houtkooper, 1991;
McClenon, 1990; McClenon, 1994). It was hoped that this study would expand
the cross-cultural literature of dreams and encourage future researchers
to pay attention those dream reports that can be described as
extraordinary.
Procedure
The research participants for this study were members of dream
seminars that I conducted between 1990 and 1998. These events were held in
various parts of Argentina, Brazil, Russia, Japan, Ukraine, and the United
States. The age span ranged from people in their 20s to their 70s (as
determined from registration information and informal conversations), with
a few individuals even younger or older. Middle and upper-middle income
groups were over-represented because there were entrance fees for most of
the seminars. Because most of the events were held at colleges,
universities, and cultural centers, the educational level of the
participants was higher than would have been found in the general
population. Many ethnic groups were represented in the sample. Dreams of
expatriates were excluded from this study.
Only one dream from each of the
research participants was utilized. There were 212 dream reports (111
female; 101 male) from Argentina, 239 (136 female, 103 male) from Brazil,
136 (66 female, 70 male) from Japan, 245 (140 female, 105 male) from
Russia, 204 (104 female, 100 male) from Ukraine, and 630 (353 female, 277
male) from the United States. The total number of dreams collected for
analysis was 1,666, 910 from women and 756 from men.
Limitations
These samples had particular characteristics that were both
advantageous and disadvantageous for a study of gender and national
differences. The participants were self-selected; this fact limits the
generalizability of our findings. Even though participants were merely
asked for a “recent dream,” it is possible that they selected an
especially extraordinary, dramatic, or puzzling dream, hoping it would be
selected for group discussion. Therefore, no claim is made that these
dreams are representative of this sample.
Hall and Van de Castle (1966) obtained 5 dreams from each of their
200 research participants in an attempt to counter selectivity (Domhoff,
1997). It was not possible to follow this practice in the current
investigation, and so the possibility of selectivity is a serious
limitation of this study.
Delimitations
This study was delimited to self-selected participants from six
countries. No attempt was made to generalize these findings to the
population of these countries as a whole, or to other parts of the world.
This study was also delimited to only twelve types of extraordinary
dreams, those discussed by Krippner and de Carvalho (1998). There are
other dream categories that could be described as “fascinating,”
“unfamiliar,” and “enticing,” and perhaps this study will
encourage future investigation of them. Examples would include sexual
dreams, incubated dreams, and “numinous” dreams, i.e., those in which
there is an encounter with “that which is beyond the sphere of the
usual, the intelligible, and the familiar” (Bulkeley, 1997, p. 2).
It was kept in mind that these were dream reports, not the
experienced dreams themselves. Any number of distortions and omissions can
occur between the time a dream is experienced and the time the dream is
reported. As a result, no attempt was made to determine whether a
purported clairvoyant dream actually matched the event in waking life
about which the dreamer claimed to dream. No attempt was made to verify
precognitive or telepathic dreams. These attempts have been made under
controlled conditions (e.g., Ullman & Krippner with Vaughan, 1989),
but were considered beyond the scope of this study.
Scoring Guidelines
For a dream report to be scored as a creative
dream, an actual problem from waking life had to be solved or a new
product had to be brought into actuality. There are various degrees of
lucidity in lucid dreams, but to be scored as such the dream report had to
specifically state that the dreamer was aware that he or she was dreaming
before awakening from the dream.
To be scored as a healing
dream, the dream report had to contain a statement that the dream
content assisted in ameliorating or preventing physical, emotional, or
spiritual distress at a point in time following the dream experience. To
be scored as a dream within a dream, the dream report mentioned entering a
different state of consciousness within the dream itself, or appearing to
wake up from the dream only to discover that the dream was still going on.
To be scored as an out-of-body
dream, the dreamer needed to report the sensation of leaving his or
her body while the dream was going on. For scoring as a telepathic
dream, the dreamer claimed that a dream matched the mental content of
a distant person in external reality; in the latter instance, there was a
purported match that was confirmed sometime after the dreamer awoke. For a dream report to be scored as a mutual or shared dream,
the dreamer and someone else claimed that they had experienced similar
dreams on the same night. These
dreams have apparent telepathic elements but were scored as mutual dreams,
not telepathic dreams, for the purpose of this study.
For a dream report to be scored as a clairvoyant
dream, it needed to match a distant event, and that a purported
confirmation of this match was made during wakefulness. A precognitive
dream report was one that provided specific information about a future
event that purportedly matched information later gleaned about that event.
To be scored as a past-life dream,
the dreamer had to report taking on a different identity than his or her
ordinary identity, one subjectively associated with a purported former
lifetime or “incarnation.”
To be scored as an initiation
dream, the dream report had to describe the introduction of the
dreamer to a non-ordinary reality, to membership in an esoteric social
group, or to a previously unexplored vocational path; in each case, this
initiation needed to be agreeable and meaningful.
It is not unusual for people to dream
about dead friends and relatives, but to be scored as a visitation dream, the deceased person or an entity from another
reality had to provide counsel or direction that the dreamer found of
comfort or value.
When a dream contained elements of two
categories, it was scored for both categories; for tabulation purposes,
half a point was given for each category.
Results
The results of this study appear in Table 1. There were 4.5 (0.3%
of the total dream reports) creative dreams, 28.5 (1.7%) lucid, 3 (0.2%)
healing, 9.5 (0.6%) dreams within dreams, 24 (1.4%) out-of-body, 2 (0.1%)
telepathic, 2 (0.1%) shared, 5 (0.3%) clairvoyant, 17 (1.0%) precognitive,
5.5 (0.3%) past-life, 15 (0.9%) initiation, and 19 (1.1%) visitation
dreams. Female dreamers reported 77 (8.5% of all female dream reports)
extraordinary dreams, while male dreamers reported 58 (7.7% of all male
reports) extraordinary dreams. The country with the highest percentage of
extraordinary dreams was Russia (12.7%), followed by Brazil (10.9%),
Argentina (8.6%), Japan (8.1%), Ukraine (5.9%), and the United States
(5.7%).
Table
1. The Incidence of Extraordinary Dream Reports, Listed by Dreamer’s
Country and Gender (presented as percentages of the total dream reports
for respective country and gender)
ARGENTINA BRAZIL
JAPAN RUSSIA
UKRAINE USA
F M
F
M
F M
F M
F M F
M
Creative
0 1.0
0
1.0 0.8
0
0 0
0 1.0
0.3 0
Lucid
2.7 1.0
2
1.5 0
0
2.1 3.3
0 1.0
1.3 2.9
Healing
0 0
0
0 0
0
0.7 0
0 0
0.6 0
Within
dream
0.9 0 0.7
1.0 1.5
0
0.7 1.4
0 2.0
0 0.4
Out-of-body
2.7 2.0
1.1 3.4
1.5 1.4
2.9 1.0
1.0 1.0
1.1 0.4
Telepathic
0 0
1.5 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
Shared
0 0
0
0
3.0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0
Clairvoyant
0.9 0
0
0 0
0
0 2.9
0 0
0.3 0
Precognitive
0 3.0
0
0 1.5
2.8 0.7
2.9 1.0
1.0 0.8
0.7
Past-Life
0 0
1.1 0
1.5 0 0.7
0.9 0
0
0.3 0
Initiation
0.9 0
2.9 2.9
0 0
0 2.9
1.0 0
0.6 0.4
Visitation
1.8 1.0
1.5 1.0
2.3 0 2.9
0
1.9 1.0
1.3 0
Data from an additional analysis of
reported ESP-type (i.e., telepathic, clairvoyant and precognitive) 24
dream reports (1.4% of total reports) regarding the type of event in the
dream and the relationship between the dreamer and the target person
(i.e., the person to whom the ostensible psi message refers) by country
are presented in Tables 2 and 3 respectively.
Table
2. Type of Event in Reported ESP-Type Dreams by Country
Death/Serious Illness/Injury
Trivial Event Positive Event
Argentina
2
2
0
Brazil
2
0
0
Japan
0
2
1
Russia
1
5
1
Ukraine
1
0
1
USA 3
2
1
Total 9 11
4
Table
3. Target Person in Reported ESP-Type Dreams by Country
Personal Family
Friend/Acquaintance Stranger/Impersonal
(self)
Argentina
0
1
1
2
Brazil
0
0
2
0
Japan
1
1
1
0
Russia
0
2
3
2
Ukraine 0
2
0
0
USA
3
0
2
1
Total
4
6
9
5
The term “ESP-type dreams” is used
here conditionally, because ESP may be involved in other types of psi-related
dreams as well. However, the dreams scored as telepathic, clairvoyant and
precognitive are amenable to such an analysis, while other types of psi-related
dreams discussed in this study are not.
As seen from Table 2, ESP-type dreams
included four positive events, a rarity in existing surveys of psi-related
dreams. Twenty dreams were either negative or trivial (i.e., related to
insignificant, commonplace events). Table 3 shows that in over half of the
ESP-type dreams, purported psi messages referred to the dreamers’
friends and acquaintances, strangers and impersonal events, while only
one-quarter of the ESP-type dreams involved the dreamers’ family
members.
Examples
One of the dreamers whose dream report
was scored as a creative dream was a Japanese woman: My father, who died in World War II, appears to me. He gives me advice
about my artwork. He gives me specific advice on what to paint and how to
do it. He tells me the topics, what brushes to use, and what colors to
use. (When I wake up, I follow his advice, and I sell the pictures!)
An Argentine woman reported a lucid dream: I
was passing through a large house with my two daughters.... We went into a
salon, which was a part of the complex. It was very modern with windows
that opened into a garden where there was an arbor of trees. Suddenly I
encountered a door to a workshop and saw a student walking down a long
corridor.... When I arrived at this corridor, I realized that I was
sleeping and dreaming. I was totally aware of this during the rest of the
dream.
Another Argentine woman submitted a dream report that was scored as
an out-of-body dream: It was almost twilight. I was suspended from something white. It seemed
to be near a cloud. I steered into that part of the cloud, and the
movement enabled me to get out, surging out of the center of my body and
surging with a high velocity until I was able to observe the scene below.
I did not like the sensations. I perceived a man I had known before the
dream. My impulse was to go toward him, but my velocity was so strong that
my hope of seeing him more closely disappeared. I was frightened when I
woke up.
A Russian woman rendered a report that was scored as a healing
dream: In my dream, I’m walking
along the road and see a man coming toward me. When he comes closer, I
recognize him. He is my husband. We look at each other carefully.
Suddenly, a small black snake appears and bites me on the right side of my
neck. I squeeze it with three fingers and it opens its mouth. I squeeze
the poison out of it, and try to find a place to put the snake. I find a
glass box and open it with great difficulty. I put the snake in. (When
I wake up, I am still squeezing my hands. But that action decreases my
recurring headaches. I still use that squeeze when I have headaches, but
they have almost disappeared.)
A Brazilian woman reported a dream-within-a-dream: I
dream that I see an Indian man who is running. He has a knife in his hand,
and is being chased by a leopard. I watch him fight with the leopard and I
am frightened. But then I stop being a witness and become the Indian in
the exact moment that the leopard jumps on him. I think I wake up, and
recall the dream, but actually I am still in the dream. But this time I am
the leopard and I attack the Indian!
Another Brazilian woman dreamed: A
man told me he was interested in the course I teach on neurolinguistic
programming. He said that there were going to be many changes in his life,
and that he would take the course so that I could help him out. The man
seemed to be the brother of a woman I know, and he said he was dying of
cancer. (Later, I talked with
this woman and described the man in my dream. The description fit her
brother exactly, and he does have cancer.) This was scored as a
telepathic dream.
Two Japanese women reported dreams from the same night; these were
scored as mutual dreams. The first woman dreamed: I
am in the lobby of a big hotel. There is a large pillar made of marble. My
friend Aiko is there and I stab her with a knife. I don’t know why I
stab her. Nobody seems to notice what I have done. The second woman
reported: I am in a hotel lobby. There is a big pillar there and I am standing by
it. My younger sister comes in. She walks right up to me and stabs me with
a knife. My younger sister’s name is Tomoko. I died from the stabbing.
The dream report of a Russian man was scored as a clairvoyant
dream: I am in an empty room.... I
try to pass through the wall. It is solid and I cannot go through it. This
wall divided two spaces.... There is a slogan on the wall, “If you are
brave, come through it.” Mr. Gorin, a business associate of mine
appears. Then I wake up. (Later,
I ask Mr. Gorin if I can visit his house. When I enter, I see the same
wall—but with no slogan on it.)
An American woman’s dream was scored as precognitive: I
had a vivid precognitive dream about a valued colleague. I dreamed that he
was rushed in an ambulance, to the hospital with heart trouble, even
though he was in good health the last time I saw him. But when I called
the hospital—in the dream—they told me that he was in bad shape and
they were preparing him for immediate surgery. (When
I woke up, I telephoned and he told me he was preparing to enter the
hospital for major heart surgery.)
A Russian man’s report was scored as an initiation dream: I
dreamed about some deities who told me that I needed to transform myself
to become a healer. It seemed as if I had died, and then I was reborn
again. The deities told me that I needed to advance one more level, to
learn about external kindness but also to be kind to myself. Once I
learned this lesson, I would be able to start healing people. I went
through three cycles of death and rebirth, and when I awakened, I felt
that my initiation was complete.
A Brazilian woman dreamed: I’m in a bedroom and I look at a man who is kneeling by a bed that is
between the two of us….I say to myself that he doesn’t care about me
as a person, he only wants sex from me. …I am upside down and in a dark
area. I feel a stroke on my back at the heart level and realize that I am
in another life. In this past life, I wanted to hurt a man. To provoke
him, I got into an accident and paralyzed myself. So I was in a
wheelchair. I couldn’t move and had no control of the lower part of my
body. And that is why I am still ashamed of that part of my body. This
report was scored as a past-life dream.
A Ukrainian woman reported: In
this dream, I am afraid of dying because my neighbors start to die, one by
one. I think of what a short period of time it took for so many of them to
die, both men and women. I would like to live a more spiritual life, but
the conditions around me do not permit it, as I must work very hard each
day. Then one of my dead neighbors comes to see me and tells me that I can
lead a spiritual life through my work. This was scored as a visitation
dream.
Sometimes dreams represented two categories. A Brazilian man
dreamed: I was sleeping when I
suddenly awoke. I was thirsty and went to the door. When I reached it, I
looked behind me and saw my own body lying there on the bed. But…when I
was passing through the hall, I suddenly saw three women and two men
walking in the yard….I was scared, but decided to talk with them. Their
clothes were colorful and bright. One man wore blue jeans….They said
they were only passing through. They had to help the family of the man in
jeans. I asked if there was life after death; she said there was no death.
The woman was pregnant. She said they lived in a peaceful, beautiful
place, and asked me not to tell anyone about this matter. When they
disappeared, I felt a different energy in the air. I could not keep this
secret. It was too exciting. This was scored both as a
dream-within-a-dream and as an out-of-body dream.
Discussion
An inspection of the examples suggest
that some extraordinary dreams fall into more than one category. The
Japanese woman who dreamed about her father giving her advice about her
painting, put his suggestions into practice with positive results. Hence,
this report qualifies as a creative dream, a category accurately described
as “rare” by the psychiatrist Jules Eisenbud (1973, p. 254). However,
it was also scored as a visitation dream because her father, dead at the
time of the dream, gave valuable counsel to the dreamer. The Brazilian
woman who dreamed about a man who resembled the brother of a friend
discovered that he actually was suffering from cancer, just as in the
dream. This report was scored as telepathic instead of clairvoyant because
of the communication described in the dream. Even under laboratory
conditions, it is often difficult to separate purported telepathic effects
from purported clairvoyant effects.
It is possible that telepathic, clairvoyant, and precognitive dreams
represent coincidental matches, unless they are gathered under tightly
controlled conditions or include extremely precise descriptive material. A
precognitive dream may also represent a premonition, i.e., that it gives
one a chance to actually change the future, as if the dreamed events do
not have to happen or can be modified in some way. In other words, some
precognitive dreams appear to represent mutable premonitions (warnings)
rather than immutable “destiny,” over which one does not seem to have
much control. Some evidence does point to a possibility of the dreamer’s
intervention to prevent the event he or she was “forewarned” about.
For example, in her study of spontaneous (self-reported) ostensibly
precognitive dream and waking experiences, Louisa E. Rhine (1955) selected
191 apparently precognitive experiences in which people attempted to
prevent a foreseen event from taking place. In 131 cases (69%) people were
successful in taking steps to avoid the undesirable consequences of
whatever appeared to have been “foretold” in their experiences. In our
database of dream reports, we have found that even if the dreamer is
convinced that they are premonitory in nature, dreams about death do not
always have a tragic ending.
Several
precognitive dreams involved positive events, which appeared to have
appreciable (perhaps life-long) significance to the dreamer, as did the
following dream of a Ukrainian woman: I
am sitting at the mirror, speculating about the future. In the mirror I
see a glass of water. On the bottom of it I notice a ring. There are two
men standing on the ring. One of them is taller and one is shorter. I am
acquainted with the short man. He is looking at me. (In
a few months we were engaged to be married in waking life!) This dream
involves a cultural symbol—divination with a glass of water, a mirror
placed on the bottom of the glass and a ring placed on the mirror is a
widespread folk tradition in Russia and the Ukraine.
Some precognitive dreams reportedly
resulted in the dreamer’s practical gain. A Japanese man dreamed: I am at a dog racetrack, about to watch the dog races. I see the numbers
“1-7-8.” I see these numbers on the scoreboard. I think that perhaps I
should bet on these numbers. I see a man at a betting stand and walk over
in that direction. (In my waking
life, I went to the dog racetrack and bet on “1-7-8.” Then I actually
won $500.00. I often have dreams that come true in my waking life.) As
shown in Table 3, about 17 percent of reported ESP-type dreams involved
positive events and nearly 46 percent were related to trivial
occurrences—a much higher percentage that was reported in collections of
spontaneous psi experiences (Stokes, 1997, p. 35), although the total
number of ESP-type dream reports is too small to warrant definite
conclusions. Still, the prevalence of trivial events in our sample is
consistent with Rhine’s (1981) hypothesis that a barrier between the
unconscious and conscious mind is relaxed in the dream state, allowing
more trivial psi messages (as compared to emotionally charged premonitions
of negative events—death, serious illness, or injury) to emerge into
consciousness.
Not all extraordinary dreams are
pleasant. The Argentine woman who reported an out-of-body dream said that
she “did not like the sensations,” that she could not control the
velocity of her travel, and that she “was frightened” when she
awakened. Some precognitive dreams leave dreamers with a sense of dread.
But in other cases, dreamers are grateful that they were prepared for a
tragic event, or relieved when the event does not occur.
In the meantime, there are several
books, most of them popular rather than professional, which discuss
extraordinary dreams. For example, Kelly Bulkeley’s (1995) book, Spiritual
Dreaming, contains separate chapters on creative dreams, lucid dreams,
healing dreams, precognitive dreams, initiation dreams and visitation
dreams.
This
study has shown that Russian participants reported twice as high incidence
of extraordinary dreams as dreamers from the United States, while the
difference between percentages of extraordinary dreams reported by
Brazilian and Argentine participants was relatively small. On the other
hand, the percentage of extraordinary dreams in the Ukraine was much
closer to that in the United States rather than in Russia, despite the
geographic proximity of Ukraine and Russia. The question arises as to what
characteristics of a particular culture may be associated with the
incidence of extraordinary dreams. It is of interest that Joseph Glicksohn
(1990) found a correlation between participants’ belief systems and the
incidence of occurrence of various types of unusual subjective
experiences, such as lucid dreaming and out-of-body experience. In this
connection, cultural belief systems appear to be the most likely
parameters to be explored in future studies about the consequences of
extraordinary dreams.
Finally it should be noted that female
dreamers reported more extraordinary dreams than did male dreamers. Do
women actually have more of these dreams, or are they simply more able to
recall them and more willing to report them? Those questions, among
others, need to be addressed in future studies.
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Stanley
Krippner, Ph.D. - co-author of Extraordinary Dreams
and How to Work With Them.
Website: http://www.stanleykrippner.com |